The surveys gather expenditure data from central and state government agencies, universities, public sector enterprises and private industry. Gross Expenditure on Research and Development (GERD) fell from ₹1.33 lakh crore in 2019-20 to ₹1.27 lakh crore in 2020-21 (a COVID-year slump), before jumping 53% to ₹1.95 lakh crore in 2021-22. It subsequently rose to ₹2.13 lakh crore in 2022-23 and ₹2.45 lakh crore in 2023-24. However, budget documents from the period do not suggest a commensurate surge in government science spending. The sharp rise in GERD coincided with a dramatic increase in the private sector industry’s contribution to India’s research spending.