Starting from the last major global election cycle in 2019-20, ad hoc, voluntary arrangements between large platforms and local EMBs emerged as a mode of co-regulation for hate speech, disinformation, and other forms of harmful online content aimed towards compromising election integrity. Similarly, when LRC, a law firm, submitted information requests to Meta, Google, and TikTok regarding their election action plans—seeking details on content moderation and emergency tools relevant to the South African elections—all three platforms refused to provide information, claiming that South African access to information laws do not apply to them.