War Communism had criminalized private trade outright. Private trade, small manufacturing, and market exchange were tolerated, a policy he described as a deliberate step backward to preserve the revolution. By 1929, the judgment reversed again: the same private trade tolerated for eight years was reclassified as kulak hoarding and counter-revolutionary sabotage, and collectivization proceeded by force. War Communism (1918–1921), the Bolshevik wartime system of forced grain requisitioning, nationalized industry, and criminalized private trade that the New Economic Policy reclassified. See Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy, 1917–1936 (Cambridge University Press, 1993).