Researchers measured respondents' endorsement of classic antisemitic stereotypes, anti-Israel attitudes, including the belief that Israel is primarily responsible for problems in the Middle East, and conspiracy theories involving Jews, Israel and Zionism. The study found that these anti-Israel and antizionist conspiracy theories served as the “bridge” between antisemitism and hostility toward Israel. “So, it’s fitting that a connection of antisemitism to anti-Israelism would involve these conspiracy beliefs, because they’re such a core, central element of antisemitism.” They can be without any taint of antisemitism,” Harber told JNS. “We cannot confidently declare that antisemitism causes anti-Israelism, or that anti-Israelism causes antisemitism, or something else causes both to arise,” he said.