Since the mid‑2000s, China has established itself as Africa’s principal bilateral financier for large infrastructure projects, including railways, bridges, dams and ports. But as the loans involved reach maturity, Beijing has transitioned from a net provider of funds to a net collector. However, Franken said China remained the continent’s largest bilateral creditor, with its debt stance shaping outcomes through mechanisms like the G20 Common Framework. Although Zambia has made significant progress on its debt restructuring and Angola has amortised its oil-backed debt down to US$6.8 billion in mid-2026 from US$16.3 billion in 2020, Ethiopia’s restructuring process has stalled. The Jomo Kenyatta International Airport toll station on the Nairobi Expressway, built under a public-private partnership between Kenya and the China Road and Bridge Corporation.