Who bears responsibility when predictive systems fail, directing resources away from actual threats or unfairly targeting innocent communities? India has developed extensive surveillance infrastructure while debating deployment of predictive systems in a context of significant civil liberties concerns. Policy Response: In 2019, Oakland became one of the first U.S. cities to ban predictive policing through municipal ordinance. Assessing whether predictive policing "works" requires defining success metrics and establishing causal attribution—both fraught with difficulty. A 2019 meta-analysis by Meijer and Wessels published in Policing & Society examined 32 studies of predictive policing effectiveness.