Its findings showed a central tension in modern disaster response: federal aid helped tens of thousands of individuals, but local governments were left without federal public assistance for damaged infrastructure and public buildings. Federal disaster aid did not cover those local government costs. Federal disaster aid has operated for decades as a backstop when local and state governments face losses beyond their combined ability to manage. When federal public assistance is available, those costs can be shared across levels of government. The surge reflected both the severity of the August flooding and the absence of federal public assistance that might otherwise have covered some local costs.